AP® European History—Semester A

Sample Lesson - Introduction

Lesson 3.05: It's Always Sunny in Westphalia

Remind me to get my flugelhorn tuned once this war is over, okay?
(Source)

What else is there to say about the second act of the Thirty Years' War, other than it lasted a really long time? Well, for one, pizza delivery hadn't been invented yet, so the food options weren't optimal. Also, alarm clocks weren't a thing, meaning if your pet rooster slept in, so did you. (Who are we kidding, roosters never sleep in.)

We could go on but, frankly, we're way more excited to talk about the war itself. The French Intervention was a major turning point in the Thirty Years' War, brimming with drama, intrigue, suspense, turf wars, more synonyms for drama and suspense, killer fight scenes, and dysentery. And who doesn't love a good dysentery story?

Wait, do you think "The Thirty Years' War: A Dysentery Story" would make a good movie title? No? Okay, we'll keep working on it.

Look, we know your history nerd radar is going off like crazy right now, and we hear you, Shmooper, we really do. But there are some seriously fascinating themes to this war and its thrilling conclusion, and we can't wait to talk about them with you. So, a sneak peek of what you'll see in this lesson:

• Political considerations transcend religious concerns, turning a religious turf-war into a power struggle between empires.
• The sovereign nation-state surpasses the centralized Roman Catholic empire as the dominant form of governance.
• Religious toleration emerges, shifting the focus of international affairs away from ecclesiastical concerns.
• The principle of "Westphalian Sovereignty" develops, setting the stage for modern international relations.

Big stuff, right? We're totally into it. In fact, we're thinking about taking this lesson to Hollywood, once we get the title of our manuscript squared away.

So, grab some popcorn, select your favorite drumroll from Spotify, and get ready for the second half of the Thirty Years' War.

Sample Lesson - Reading

Reading 3.3.05: Westphalia is for Lovers

France Gets Its Hands Dirty

Welcome to the second installment of The Thirty Years War: The Musical. Oh, right, you didn't want to see our jazz hands. Joke's on you, because Shmoop has really great jazz hands.

So let's talk about the third phase of the war, the French Intervention (1635–1648). Even though France was predominately Roman Catholic, it was willing to put its religious differences with Sweden aside so the two countries could overcome their mutual enemies, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. In fact, as early as 1631, France was already meddling in the war. Through the Treaty of Bärwalde, France agreed to give money to support Sweden in exchange for Sweden's promise to fight the Hapsburgs in Germany.

But, after Sweden's defeat at the Battle of Nördlingen and the powerful Imperial-German super army created after the Peace of Prague⎯seriously, guys, they were like the Storm Troopers or something⎯it became increasingly obvious Sweden wasn't going to be able to continue fighting without a little more elbow grease from its friends. The money was nice and all, but what Sweden really needed was soldiers.

Cardinal Richelieu, the Chief Minister of King Louis XIII of France, understood Sweden's vulnerability, and decided to fight the Hapsburgs. Of course, France's motives were far from altruistic⎯she wanted to take as her own the province of Alsace from the Holy Roman Empire. So, in 1635, France declared war on Spain; a year later, in 1636, she declared war on the Holy Roman Empire.

Initially, the fortunes of the war fluctuated, much like a neck-in-neck basketball game. Basket for Sweden! Basket for Spain! Basket for France! (Shmoop could go on, but there were lots of baskets. Also, lots of flagrant fouls. And that about exhausts Shmoop's ability to continue with this sports metaphor.)

But, in 1640, things started looking pretty good for France, and less so for Spain. France⎯which was no doubt the wealthiest and most populous kingdom in Europe⎯conquered the Spanish fort at Arras, paving the way for the conquer of Flanders. (The country, not the Simpsons' character.) The news about Flanders spread throughout Spain, prompting numerous revolts. Richelieu, who hoped to divert Spain's attention and resources, thought these internal revolts were the best thing since sliced bread, which hadn't even been invented yet. Richelieu even provided aid⎯though, probably not sliced bread⎯to the Catalonian revolters. (Source)

Richelieu got what he wanted⎯the war of diversion was working brilliantly. In December 1640, the Portuguese revolted from Spanish rule (with a little help from France) and King Philip IV had to choose between fighting in northern Europe or dealing with the mess back in Spain. Understandably, and at the recommendation of his advisors, he chose to go home and abandon his fight for the Spanish Road. Without access to the Spanish Road, Philip IV had no way to send reinforcements to the Low Countries, and without reinforcements, well, it didn't look good for the Imperialists.

Even after Richelieu died, France continued to rock the war. (Shmoop would like to clarify that no one really "rocks" a war, as wars are devastating events that truly leave no winners, but our point is that, militarily, France was doing way better than Spain.) France had already claimed Alscace, Trier, and Lorraine, and now they grabbed Gravelines, Hulst, and Dunkirk. Basically, France was collecting territories like they were Pokémon cards⎯Gotta Catch 'Em All! By 1643, French generals like Duc d'Enghien (later known as the Great Condé) and Vicomte de Turenne ensured victory for France over the Hapsburgs. The Battle of Rocroi was a decisive turning point in the war.

Be sure to check out this article on the French Intervention for even more French Intervention fun (scroll down past the list of links to read the article).

Peace of Westphalia: There's No Peace Like Home

By 1644, the warring nations realized the fighting couldn't last forever. Already, the war's impact had been tremendous, and devastating. War, disease, famine, and the Protestant expulsion all led to a drastic decline of civilian populations in the German states and Czech lands. Entire villages were destroyed, and those that survived would not recover for years⎯seriously, like a hundred years. The influx of foreign soldiers, the movement of troops, civilian displacement, and refuge overcrowding all contributed to the spread of diseases like typhus and the plague.

So, to end the madness, the major players in the war⎯the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of France, the Swedish Empire, and the Dutch Republic⎯negotiated toward peace over a four-year period. The two resulting treaties that ended the war are known as the Peace of Westphalia. Of course, everyone negotiating the treaties was so worn out from all those years at war, at the time they referred to it as the Peace of Exhaustion. (Source)

The first treaty, the Treaty of Münster, was signed on October 24, 1648; the second treaty, the Treaty of Osnabrück, on May 15, 1648. The 1659 Treaty of the Pyrenees, which resolved the ongoing conflict between France and Spain after the conclusion of the Thirty Years' War, is also often considered part of the Peace of Westphalia.

Why was one treaty signed in Münster, and the other in Osnabrück? Funny you should ask. Although the powers-that-be understood the necessity of a resolution to the seemingly never-ending war, they still didn't like each other. The Protestant and Catholic leaders refused to sit at the same table, in the same room, or even in the same city. So the Protestants went to Osanbrück, while the Catholics went to Münster, two cities in the territory of Westphalia located approximately 30 miles apart. In case you were wondering, that's about an hour drive or an eleven-hour walk. Unfortunately, Google Maps doesn't offer a "travel by horseback" calculation, so Shmoop can't tell you how long it took for the messengers to get from city to city.

So why, exactly, do we care about the Peace of Westphalia, other than the fact that "Westphalia" is fun to say? No, seriously: try it. Westphalia. Westphalia. Westphalia. If you say it enough times, it doesn't even sound like a real word anymore.

Well, the treaties that comprised the Peace of Westphalia marked the beginning of the modern area. And you thought the iPhone marked the beginning of the modern era. Silly Shmooper. The fact that the treaties were negotiated and agreed to by a diplomatic congress⎯composed of delegations from 16 European states, 66 Imperial States, and 27 interest groups⎯was hugely precedential. The treaties also established a system of Westphalian sovereignty, or the Westphalian System, which was comprised of three key principles:

• States were sovereign and got to control their own system of governance (self-determination, yo).
• States were considered equal under the law, and this sense of balance had an impact on diplomatic and military objectives.
• It was definitely not cool to interfere with the internal affairs of another state. Read: Do not take over your neighbors, Germany. (Though, Spain, if you want to take over the New World, that's totally cool.)

(Source)

Of course, some historians dispute this interpretation of the Peace of Westphalia, arguing that the treaties simply served to maintain the status quo. For one, the treaties don't even mention sovereignty. Not once. Nada. So why have they been interpreted to establish sovereignty? France, Sweden, and the Holy Roman Empire were already sovereign, and since they were the primary participants, they really didn't feel a need to clarify. The treaties also provided that, if at any point they were broken, France and Sweden could go ahead and intervene with the Empire's internal affairs. So there goes that third key principle.

Plus, even though the German states were granted the right to make treaties and alliances, the Holy Roman Empire was still able to determine the fate of Germany through its Court of Appeal, in which the Emperor always had the last word.

Still, the treaties weakened the Holy Roman Empire's authority, and, because the empire was now comprised of independent states, the Holy Roman Empire didn't really stand a chance of restoring its power and the Catholic faith throughout the empire. Who's got the last word now, Holy Roman Empire?

If you're asking how the treaties addressed religious concerns⎯you know, the Catholic-Protestant feud that triggered the whole war?⎯then you've reached the right paragraph. Congratulations! The treaties required the parties to recognize the Peace of Augsburg, with some key differences. Each prince could choose the religion of his own state between three religions. Obviously, Catholicism and Lutheranism were still options, but now Calvinism was in the mix. We'd celebrate with a happy dance for the Calvinists, but they didn't approve of dancing.)

But unlike under the Peace of Augsburg, now Christians living in a principality where they did not practice the established denomination did not have to convert or leave. Rather, they were guaranteed the limited right to practice the faith of their choosing (provided it was one of the Top Three: Catholicism, Lutheranism, or Calvinism). Why was this right limited? While they could practice their faith privately at any time, they could only engage in public worship during hours specified by the state. So, if your state didn't allow Catholics to pray outside on Wednesdays between the hours of 3:00 – 6:00, well, too bad for you if that's what you wanted to do.

Did we mention the territory-swapping covered under the treaties? You can't really have a treaty ending a major European war without making some adjustments to the borders, areweright? So, in sum:

• Switzerland and the Netherlands became independent countries. Wahoo!
• France gobbled up even more land. Seriously, got the the Bulbasaur and the Charmander and the Pidgeotto, and the Dodrio…wait, those are Pokemon. France actually got control of Metz, Toul Verdun, and most of Alsace.
• Sweden got Western Pomerania, Wismar, Bremen, and Verdan. This meant Sweden now had a seat at the Imperial Diet's table. Unfortunately, the food wasn't that great because everyone was on a diet. Ba-dum.
• Bavaria got to keep Palatinate's vote in the Imperial Council of Electors. Way to go, Bavaria, for holding on to the one thing you had already clamed since 1623.
• The Palatinate was split up between the Protestants and Catholics.
• Prussia (the artist formerly known as Brandenburg) scored Farther Pomerania, Magdeburg, Halberstadt, Kammin, and Minden.
• Bremen got to be its own independent city.

(Source)

And there you have it: the Peace of Westphalia. Did it end the fighting in Europe? No. Did it establish religious freedom for all throughout the land? No. Did it solve world hunger or the plague? Definitely no.

But it did resolve a lot of conflict that had given rise to the war, establishing a new world order respecting sovereign states that is, arguably, in place even today. So, pretty cool, right?

Want an in-depth take on the Peace of Westphalia? Here's a thoughtful article we recommend, if you want to go above and beyond the required reading.

Sample Lesson - Activity

Activity 3.05: Peace Out, Westphalia

We've told you a lot about the Treaty of Westphalia, but what does it actually say? Does the Treaty declare a weekly Cheese Appreciation Tuesday? Is there a secret provision annexing the Smurf Village to Gargamel's kingdom? (Spoiler: no.) Our point, though, is that the Treaty of Westphalia is a complex agreement that addressed the needs of multiple interested adversaries, sometimes to their satisfaction and, well, sometimes not. At the end of the day, the Treaty raised as many questions as it resolved. And modern interpretations of the Treaty and its impact conflict, depending on factors like the historians analyzing the document and the social and political mood of the time.

So you, world history expert that you are, should have some idea of what the Treaty actually says. Don't listen to know-it-all historians spoon feed you their interpretations⎯you get to decide for yourself why the Treaty is significant.

Part One

The best way to do that? Well, start by reading and annotating the Treaty of Westphalia. We like the Avalon Project's translation, which can be found here.

Since you're going to annotate the Treaty, we recommend that you either print out the document (it's about 13 pages) so that you can handwrite your notes, or cut-and-paste it into a word processor, so that you can track your changes.

As you read, take notes directly on the document. What is interesting to you? What seems important? What questions do you have? Highlight, underline, circle, draw arrows connecting related concepts⎯do whatever you've gotta do to make sense of the text.

For an example of annotation, check this out.

Need some guidance? Well, some questions we'd be asking ourselves include:

• How much independence is granted to individual states? How do you know whether states are treated as sovereign?
• Are some states given more rights than others?
• What restrictions are placed, if any, on a states right to govern its own internal affairs? What about interfering with the affairs of other states?
• Did the Treaty contemplate what would happen if anyone broke the rules?
• How does the Treat address religious disputes? Do people get the right to practice their religion of choice?
• Who got what land? How did the territorial map of Europe change as a consequence of the Treaty?
• Are there any concepts or ideas that are still in effect today?

Part Two

Hey, Shmooper, way to go for reading that whole Treaty. You're awesome. Now that you're basically an expert, lets move on to the next part of the activity: the analytical essay. Explain the historical significance of the Treaty of Westphalia. Be sure to address the following:

• How did the Treaty of Westphalia resolve the religious conflict underlying the Thirty Years' War?
• What impact did the Treaty of Westphalia have on individual state governance in Europe? How has the system established by the Treaty changed and remained the same today?
• What major territorial changes did the Treaty of Westphalia include, and how can did those changes effect the territorial makeup of modern Europe?

Be sure to include at least two direct quotes from the Treaty of Westphalia as you craft your analysis, and of course feel free to draw from other readings you've done so far that shape your understanding of the Treaty of Westphalia and its impact⎯just be sure to cite your sources. Wondering what that looks like? Here's a preview of Shmoop's essay:

One important way in which the Peace of Westphalia resolved the religious conflict underlying the Thirty Years' War was that it favored religious toleration for Protestants and Catholics. True, the Peace of Westphalia restored conditions as they were under the Peace of Augsburg, which allowed the leader of each country to choose its religion, under the principle of cuius regio. However, unlike the Peace of Augsburg, the Peace of Westphalia allowed people to:

[…] "Have the free Exercise of their Religion, as well in publick Churches at the appointed Hours, as in private in their own Houses, or in others chosen for this purpose by their Ministers, or by those of their Neighbours, preaching the word of God." (Source)

This right to practice one's religion both privately and publicly⎯albeit with some limitation⎯was an important step toward religious toleration in Europe.

Your final essay should be about 300 to 400 words. 

When you're finished, upload your annotations from Step One, and your essay from Step Two, below.