AP® English Language and Composition Review Course

Sample Lesson - Introduction

Lesson 1.04: Rhetorical Function, Purpose, Strategy, and Organization Questions

Apparently J-Cap was ahead of the trends on forehead headbands as well.
(Source)

Also known as the original angsty teenager, Shakespeare's Juliet famously went on and on about "What's in a name?", claiming that Romeo was just as good without his problem-causing surname. She was devoted, that one.

Similarly, the term "rhetoric" gets a lot of love in English classes (and on the exam), but it's not part of normal conversations about homework or dirty laundry. Most people will probably admit that they're not totally sure what it means.

That's because "rhetoric" can mean a lot of things. It seems like a field based on the study of language would devise precise terms to portray clearly the idea entailed. With English, this is not the case. Rhetoric is, essentially, the art of using language effectively. In some cases, but not all, it more specifically encompasses the idea of formal argumentation, or persuasion.

This is to say nothing of the other terms with "rhetoric" in the name. We've got rhetorical strategies, rhetorical appeals, rhetorical fallacies, rhetorical devices…the list goes on like a six-year old's letter to Santa.

Unfortunately, the global meeting of English teachers where they finally decide exactly what to call all of these things got canceled. We're left with a million different overlapping terms used by different people to mean different things that all describe how well or poorly language is manipulated.

Guess what? The AP English Language exam loves to talk about language manipulation. The name of the exam probably gave that one away already, though.

Big Issues

While we're used to hearing the term "rhetorical situations" used to describe hypothetical examples, the questions concerning rhetoric on the AP English Language exam are 100 percent real, and thus require some real preparation. Here's what these questions are packing in their bag of tricks.

• Identifying rhetorical function. Like pieces in a puzzle, each choice an author makes has a specific purpose. Students should be able to identify the purpose of each paragraph or phrase in a text and how it works to create the big picture. Bonus: Paragraphs can't get lost in the couch cushions.

• Identifying rhetorical purpose. Of course, it would be really hard to put together an entire puzzle without a picture to work from printed on the box. On the AP English Language exam, rhetorical purpose is that picture, providing a blueprint for the text as a whole.

• Identifying rhetorical strategies and devices. We have yet to find a puzzle where every piece was identical, but if such a puzzle existed, it wouldn't be much fun to do. Puzzle pieces come in all different shapes, as do rhetorical strategies and devices. There are multiple ways to approach and strengthen an argument, and students should be comfortable identifying all of them.

• Identifying organizational structures and strategies. Just like some people put together all the border pieces of a puzzle first, while others might work on connecting different images, there are different ways to organize an argument. After familiarizing themselves with the identifying characteristics of each rhetorical mode, students will have the skills to break down any type of argument the exam tosses their way.

Are you ready to get started, Shmooper? Sorry, that was a rhetorical question. Ready or not, some Shmoopified knowledge is coming your way. Let's do this.

Sample Lesson - Reading

Reading 1.1.04a: Identifying Rhetorical Function Questions

Discussing the rhetorical function of something often seems abstract and vague. It feels like pondering the meaning of life or contemplating the age-old question: If a tree falls in the woods and no one is around to hear it, does it make a noise?

Do they make Life Alert for trees? (Source)

The AP English Language exam doesn't make a habit of asking about zen koans like that last one, but it does want to know why an author makes certain choices in a text, and it wants to know frequently.

Questions about rhetorical function come in many forms like, "The author's use of the metaphor in line 34 serves to" or, "The primary function of lines 6–11 is to…" Tackling these questions may seem daunting, but at the end of the day, they're basically inquisitive toddlers, constantly asking, "Why? Why, why, why is it there? What does it do?"

Unfortunately, there's no list we can create that gives all the possible functions of a word, phrase, line or paragraph. The rhetorical function of paragraph 3 in a passage, for instance, may be to give evidence for the claim made in paragraph 2. A line's function may be to contrast the imagery in the line before it, introduce a new topic, or acknowledge and refute a prevailing opinion. A line, word, or phrase's function can even be as simple as to create good structure and support the rhetorical mode (organizing principle) in use. Check out some of the most popular functions below.

To Emphasize or Describe

Rhetorical strategies (that is, figurative language and other devices) are often used to give emphasis to a certain aspect of the text that the author wants to draw attention to. Take this example.

Beatrice crossed the bridge over the stream.

What's the most important aspect of this sentence? There's no way to tell. We know there's a girl and a body of water, but that's about it. Maybe she's having a picnic on a sunny day, maybe she's trying to escape some sort of water-phobic vampire monkey who's been chasing her for hours. We'll never know.

Now take this example.

Beatrice crossed the bridge over the stream, its waters gently slipping, tumbling, swirling across the mossy rocks and the crumbling, discarded branches of the overhanging trees.

The focus of the sentence is now on the stream. The sentence employs assonance and consonance, as well as visual imagery specifically to draw the reader's attention to the stream. What's Beatrice doing? Who cares? We're thinking about this stream, and whether there are fish in it, and if there's trash in it and—if there is trash—what we can do to fix it and help it and love it, because this stream is the best one ever.

Devices like anaphora and parallelism are also often used to give emphasis, among other devices. Scoop up buckets of knowledge on literary and rhetorical devices in our not-quite-patented Super-Shmoop Literature Glossary. It's neat.

To Create Tone and Theme

When figurative language is used effectively, it can help set a tone for the piece or determine the theme. Functionally, figurative language serves as reinforcement for ideas that the author is trying to convey subtly, rather than insulting the reader's intelligence by just coming right out and saying it.

In the example about the stream, in addition to creating emphasis and holding the reader's attention, the uses of figurative language subtly told us what to think and how to feel about the stream. Without the figurative language, we didn't know whom to care about, Beatrice or the stream.

Figurative language guided our focus to the stream and its lovely natural qualities, providing clues about tone (it's a happy one, no vampire monkeys lurking that we're aware of) and a potential theme (look at how great nature is!).

To compare or contrast

If the AP English Language exam is fond of anything, it's afternoon snack time. If it's fond of two things, it's afternoon snack and comparisons. The passages on the exam, much like those in the rest of rhetoric, often use compare and contrast strategies. If a comparison occurs in the text, expect to see a question about it.

With rhetorical function questions, the exam may ask about comparisons and contrasts with something as clear as "lines 32–34 set up a contrast between…"

Need a refresher on comparing and contrasting? Have this one.

To form part of an argument

In a popularity contest for rhetorical functions, "serving as part of the argument" would win the crown and the runner-up and Miss Congeniality. Since most rhetoric is all about constructing arguments, it's extremely common for a piece of text to be a building block of that argument. A line or paragraph might function as the major claim, or assertion, or it could suggest or imply a minor point of clarification. It may also provide evidence to support the claim, or it could acknowledge a counterargument.

Ultimately, the best strategy for identifying the function of any part of a text is to mentally remove the cited portion from the passage to see what's now missing. Assess how the passage becomes less effective without this piece of information or description. After forming an idea, look through the answer options and find the one that best fits.

Study Break

The writers of these early reviews of now-classic works of literature probably feel a bit embarrassed now.

Sample Lesson - Reading

Reading 1.1.04b: Identifying Rhetorical Purpose Questions

There may be some skills on the AP English Language exam that make only a cameo appearance, so students could potentially skate by with limited abilities, but there's no escaping from rhetorical purpose. Every text included in the AP English Language exam has one. In fact, every text ever written had a purpose, if only to passive-aggressively suggest that a lazy sibling maybe wash one or possibly even two dishes ever, if it's not too much trouble.

Dirty dishes can strike fear into anyone. (Source)

Beyond passive aggressive notes, the possible rhetorical purposes of a text are divided into four categories: informative, persuasive, expressive, and literary. Most texts employ more than one, and sometimes all, of these four, and at least a few questions on the exam will require students to pick out a text's primary mode or what type of audience it might have been written for. As always, there are a few options.

Informative

This is the driest of the four categories. Think of it as the owner's manual. Texts that employ the informative purpose are communicating information. The focus here is on the message and content, not on the underlying style or broader implications for the argument. For example, "South Dakota has four times as many cattle as people" is an example of informative purpose.

Persuasive

This is the most confrontational of the four categories, A.K.A. the political pamphlet. Though the goal may seem obvious for these texts, the exam emphasizes the audience here (more on that later). After all, the whole point is to change the mind of the reader. The exam also focuses not on what the argument is, but rather how it's structured and supported. For example, pretend an author is arguing against agricultural subsidies. Does she cite figures, like South Dakota's very alarming cattle-to-person ratio? Does she tell a story about her own experiences as a farmer, appeal to readers' emotions, or quote scientists in the field? Whatever strategy the author chooses, expect the exam to ask about it.

Expressive

This is the most confessional of the four categories, like a diary. Expressive texts focus on the writer's thoughts and feelings, meaning the goal is most like analysis and reflection, like Joan Didion's "Goodbye to All That." Even if there isn't an obvious argument, though, the author is still employing rhetorical devices. She's telling her story in a way that makes it both specific and universal, and the exam invariably asks how she does it.

Literary

This is the most eloquent of the four categories, like a lyric poem. When the exam includes these texts, it wants students to study the specific techniques that a writer is using: the figurative language, structure, and word choice. As with the other texts, even if the passage isn't making a clear argument, it still has a purpose, which students will need to identify. Expect these readings to be things like novels, poems, and humor.

Identifying the Audience

Understanding a text's rhetorical purpose is also mega-important for figuring out to whom it was directed in the first place. The choice of audience is one of the biggest decisions an author can make. This decision has huge ramifications, from the diction the author uses to the inside jokes she or he makes. The exam also asks students to speculate as to why that intended audience was chosen and what the larger social or cultural context could be.

For questions like these, start by identifying the rhetorical purpose of the text as a whole, assessing if it's meant to inform, persuade, express feelings, or reach some literary goal. Though a text can accomplish all four, most lean toward one. A persuasive excerpt might argue things like "Politicians should vote yes on this amendment," or "We must always remember to prioritize recycling," or "Third Eye Blind is absolutely the greatest band of the 20th century."

If the purpose is indeed to persuade, the target audience probably isn't the groups that already agree. Hardcore Third Eye Blind fans already think (know) which band is the greatest. Likewise, if the author wants to describe or teach, it's unlikely that she's addressing those who already have expertise. Classical music professors don't need to read an article on the life of Mozart.

Next, think about the background knowledge the author assumes—whether the jargon comes with a definition or whether most readers need to infer the meaning of new words. For example, if an author were to mention that Dr. Gemma is also a herpetologist, her intended audience is probably people who know that the word means a scientist who studies snakes. Combine purpose and word choice, and the answer should be clearer.

Study Break

Yoga break.

Sample Lesson - Reading

Reading 1.1.04c: Identifying Rhetorical Strategies and Devices Questions

Tiger Woods and Jordan Spieth may get all the glory, but the real unsung heroes of golf are the caddies. On top of lugging a heavy golf bag around for a thousand hours—seriously, the sport's not known for speed—they also have the super important job of helping the golfer choose a club. Selecting the right club is crucial to hitting a good shot: Using a putter to get out of a sand trap or picking a nine-iron for your short game would be utter disaster, or so we've heard.

Not to brag, but our putt-putt game is impressive. (Source)

Likewise, authors have a variety of rhetorical strategies at their disposal. There's a big difference between a hard-hitting barrage of facts and the gentle touch of a personal story, and the AP English Language exam expects students to understand how authors use those strategies to create and strengthen their arguments.

Rhetorical Strategies

Often referred to as rhetorical appeals, the list of rhetorical strategies is blissfully much shorter than the list of possible functions a sentence can have. It's a list of three, to be exact. The choice of rhetorical strategy indicates how the author chooses to approach persuasion. Will he rely on logic, reputation, or good old fuzzy emotions?

Logos

An argument based on logos is intended to appeal to the reader's sense of logic and reason. These arguments frequently employ statements about causality (if this, then this), and largely rely on factual, irrefutable information.

If spending continues at the given rate, x, then we will exceed a serviceable debt load in 27 years.

An appeal to logos is a strong way to strengthen an argument because it's usually grounded in solid facts or sound logic. Of course, when logic goes wrong, it runs into logical fallacy territory. More on that later.

Ethos

An ethos appeal aims to show the speaker's trustworthiness or credibility, usually by using some combination of these four tactics.

1. Use the pronoun 'we' to establish a relationship with the audience.

2. Allude to a close relationship with a relevant and respected authority.

3. Give your qualifications as an expert.

4. Address and refute opposing views.

As a practicing physician for the last twenty years who has researched and published on this subject for the last ten, I can definitively say that smoking causes cancer, along with a host of other illnesses (3). As related by the Centers for Disease Control (2), smoking increases the risk of not only lung cancer, but also heart disease, stroke, and respiratory ailments. Although smoking rates have trended down since 1965, nearly 40 million adults still smoke (4). With increasing emphasis on smoking cessation programs, we (1) now have new tools to combat the national epidemic of smoking-related illnesses.

Ethical appeals are especially popular in political arenas because they not only convince the audience that the speaker is right, but they elevate the speaker to a position of respect and authority. In scientific terms, that's called a "win-win."

Pathos

When facts and ethics get a little dry, pathos is there to provide a powerful dose of feelings. While some may abuse this power, appeals to pathos are actually a nice way to remind the audience that a debate isn't always black-and-white. For instance, it may be easy to write a logical argument for why a country should be at war, but how does that war impact the lives of everyday citizens? That's a job for (a dash of) pathos.

1. Use anecdotal evidence or personal stories.

2. Use extreme, emotional diction.

3. Use dramatic figurative language/imagery.

The bloody, relentless conflict in the Middle East has caused utter devastation on every street corner and in every home (2). Reports of civilian casualties increase daily (1) as the conflict continues to rage like a maelstrom of terror (3). We must not neglect to intervene on their behalf!

In tiny, well-placed amounts, pathos isn't so bad. It can cap off a strong, logical argument with just the right flair. If appeals to pathos compose the entire argument, however, we have a problem. Even the hardest tugs at the reader's heartstrings aren't a substitute for a sound, logical argument.

Get more on ethos, pathos, and logos with ShmoopTube.

Rhetorical Devices

Good writing uses different rhetorical devices. Some of these devices have been in use since ancient times. They stay in use because they're effective at making writing more precise and prettier. They make arguments more persuasive, descriptions more expressive, and elegies more elegiant…er, elegant. "Elegiant" is definitely not a word.

The way to score well on the AP English Language exam, not to mention become more educated about the English language, is to understand the role that these devices play and to recognize when and where they're used. While rhetorical function questions may ask about the purpose a rhetorical strategy or device serves in a text, these questions typically want a simple identification. Questions may sound like, "What rhetorical strategy does the author use in line 45?" or "Which of the following features is used most extensively in lines 9–15?"

Learning all the rhetorical strategies ever devised sounds intimidating, but students probably know a lot of them already. We use them every day, even if we don't know exactly what they're called. For this exam, it's important to know what they're called, though. After all, that's what this section is for. Rhetorical devices are as many as the day is long, in Alaska, in July.

(Pop quiz: Which rhetorical device was that? If you don't know the answer, read on—you should be able to find it below.) Some rhetorical devices are almost always asked about on the AP English Language exam, like the ones below. Take the time to understand and memorize all of these devices. It makes identifying and interpreting them on the exam about three kazillion times easier, trust us.

Alliteration

A musical device in which words are linked together by having the same initial or beginning consonant.

Example: Please persist in pleasing the peas and their overlords, the petunias.

Allusion

A reference to something historical/mythological/literary.

Example: He was born with a seemingly herculean strength.

Analogy

A comparison between two similar things; one is usually more familiar than the other.

Example: She grew on him like she was a colony of E. Coli, and he was room-temperature Canadian beef. –an anonymous but genius writing student

Anaphora

The repetition of a word or words in a systematic way for effect.

Example: Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., repeated the phrase "I have a dream" eight different times in his famous speech.

Antithesis

A rhetorical device in which two contrasting ideas are directly compared in speech, often using parallelism to highlight their contrast.

Example: "The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here." –The Gettysburg Address

Aphorism

A pithy (and short) statement meant to impart great wisdom.

Example: "Fish and visitors stink in three days." –Benjamin Franklin

Apostrophe

An address to someone absent, often set off in commas.

Example: Oh, dreadful Mother Nature, how dare you take away our snow days!

Assonance

Like alliteration, except the repeated sounds across multiple areas are vowels rather than consonants.

Example: Bill's windmill will still tilt.

Colloquialism

A regional statement, not high English, that drifts into dialect or slang.

Example: "I ain't going in that bear cave, and y'all shouldn't either," said Jimmy.

Connotation

The emotional overtones or associations with a word, as opposed to the actual meaning.

Example: The connotation of "Democrat" may change dramatically if it's being said by Al Franken or by Rush Limbaugh.

Denotation

The literal, exact meaning of the word. The dictionary definition of the word is the denotation.

Example: Denotation: n; \ˌdē-nō-ˈtā-shən\ : the meaning of a word

Didactic

Instructive, to an excessive extent; overtly moral lessons.

Example: All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

Euphemism

A substitution of "nice words" instead of a word that might offend.

Example: "I need to see a man about a horse" implies that we're using the restroom, not becoming John Wayne.

Hyperbole

Intense exaggeration or overstatement.

Example: If "America's Next Top Ballerina Hibachi Chef" isn't renewed for another season, I'll pluck out my own eyeballs.

Inductive Reasoning

An argument derived from detailed facts; inferences based on patterns and generalizations. Caution: Inductive reasoning can easily go astray.

Example: The radioactive ferret ate the right leg of the couch, the right leg of the kitchen table, and the right leg of my sister's doll. The ferret must have a taste for right legs.

Invective

Extremely harsh language.

Example: I yelled fierce invective at the car that drove at full speed through the massive puddle, drenching both me and my coffee.

Irony

The incongruity between what is expected and what actually occurs; saying the opposite of what you actually mean. Usually humorous, and often difficult to detect in writing.

Example: Scraping gum from underneath our desks for the past six hours was the most gratifying experience of Sam's life.

Metaphor

Something used in a non-literal sense to represent or describe something else.

Example: You are the sunshine of my life, as Stevie Wonder says.

Metonymy

The substitution of the name of an object closely associated with a word for the word itself.

Example: The White House announced a new tax break for small businesses today.

Oxymoron

When two contradictory terms are used together.

Example: The jumbo shrimp are under friendly fire.

Parallelism

The literary version of symmetry; it involves using balanced construction to give sentences rhythm.

Example: "If you are young and not liberal, then you have no heart; if you are old and not conservative, then you have no brain." – Churchill or Disraeli, depending on whom you ask

Personification

Giving non-humans (animals, objects, weather) specifically human attributes.

Example: The last dumpling stared back at the two equally hungry faces, taunting them cruelly.

Satire

The extended use of irony to characterize a work; witty language often used sarcastically and with the goal of pointing out societal problems.

Example: No need to hide your kids; Jonathan Swift was completely being satirical when he wrote A Modest Proposal.

Simile

A comparison of one thing to another using "like" or "as."

Example: His argument was as implausible as our chances of winning the lottery.

Syllogism

Deductive reasoning in which a conclusion is derived from premises.

Example: "I love all cookies. Peanut butter cookies are a type of cookie, so I love peanut butter cookies." –Cookie Monster

Synecdoche

A figure of speech wherein a part of an object is used to refer to the entire object.

Example: The phrase "the ABCs" refers to all 26 letters in the alphabet, not just the letters A, B, and C. Otherwise, that would make "knowing your ABC's" way less impressive than it actually is.

Symbol

When one thing is used to represent something else.

Example: A nation's flag is used as a symbol for that nation in the Olympics.

Understatement

When the writer makes something sound less dire or serious than it is, often used humorously.

Example: I don't want to alarm anybody, but Jeff's on fire.

Study Break

Things you can do with words: Now with 1,000 percent more Disney references.

Sample Lesson - Reading

Reading 1.1.04d: Organizational Structures and Strategies

Don't tell Mama Shmoop she was right, but there's something inherently satisfying about a perfectly organized closet or a sparklingly clean locker. Everything has its place, and it's all easily accessible because we're not digging through a week's worth of dirty laundry and Hot Pocket wrappers to get to it.

We can't decide if this level of organization is inspiring or terrifying. (Source)

Likewise, arguments work best when they're well-structured, which is where rhetorical modes come in. Just to keep things interesting, rhetorical modes have a bunch of different alter egos that may appear on the AP English Language exam: "organizing principles," "rhetorical technique," and "rhetorical patterns." Any of those terms refers to the structures below, and all are good choices for structuring arguments of your own when it comes to things like, oh, say, the essay section.

Multiple-choice questions about structure tend to ask general questions like, "The organizing principle of the passage is…" (Hint: The organizing principle isn't "color-coded" or "by season" like our closet at home.) They may also ask about shifts or changes in organizational structure like, "When the passage moves from the second paragraph to the third paragraph, it also moves from…"

With organization questions, take a step back to look at the bigger picture. These questions ask about the "bones" of the piece, how it's put together. Ignore specific uses of language for a moment and look instead at what the author's argument is, then look for the major way that it's achieved. Authors frequently use more than one mode, but in all, there should be a running structural theme that matches one of the following modes more closely and more often than the others.

Analogy

Comparing something foreign to something more familiar to show how the unfamiliar concept is like the familiar one is called the analogical mode. For instance, an essay that likens the ancient Roman philosophy of "bread and circuses" to the rise of reality TV stars like the Kardashians is written in the analogical mode, and is also something that needs to go in our reading list, stat.

Argument

The mode in which the author claims an idea is true and then supplies evidence to support that claim is called an argument. Arguments can exist within the other rhetorical modes, so watch out for this one peeking around the corner anywhere a nonfiction text is lurking.

Cause and Effect

The mode in which the causes and/or effects of an idea or event are explored is called cause and effect—shocking, we know.

An essay that explains the causes of global warming, then shifts to discussing its environmental effects would follow this mode.

Classification and Division

Breaking down a larger concept down into smaller groups, organizing those groups by their common characteristics, is the classification and division mode. An essay on the modern teenager might feature paragraphs on various social groups—and also probably be a little judgey.

Comparison and Contrast

Similar to analogy in that it explores the commonalities between two subjects, comparison and contrast goes one step further and points out their differences as well. In a very meta twist, the previous sentence was an example of comparison and contrast.

Definition

A favorite of both Merriam and Webster, definition is a unique rhetorical mode. Its overarching purpose is to define an item, event, or idea, but since a one-sentence dictionary definition doesn't make a very good essay, it relies on other rhetorical modes to get there. For instance, a historian might write an essay giving her definition of the years of the Renaissance, but she might use cause and effect or argumentative tactics to explain why she believes her definition is correct.

Description

The rhetorical mode that appeals to the senses of a reader, painting a picture of an item, event, or idea is description. It's much more fun for readers to visualize a beautiful Sunday in the park through description instead of reading a list of boring facts like the humidity and dogs-to-people ratio.

Example

This mode uses specific anecdotes (short narrative sketches) or examples (fitting, right?) to clarify ideas or thoughts. For instance, an essay written in this mode about the benefits of pet adoption might tell the stories of three different families finding their furry friends. As a bonus, those examples would also be a strong appeal to pathos because puppies are impossible to say no to.

Narration

Everybody loves a good story, and narration is just the mode for that job. In this mode, events are related in chronological order, usually either in first-person or third-person. For example, a huge chunk of the Shmoop Literature section.

Process Analysis

Sometimes a subject is too complex to communicate without breaking it down step-by-step, which is where a mode like process analysis comes in handy. Think of trade essays about the manufacturing of tennis balls or a recipe for the perfect Nutella-marshmallow-peanut-butter cookie.

Identifying Rhetorical Fallacies

If Pinocchio were an author on the AP English Language exam, it would be much easier to master the skill of identifying rhetorical fallacies, provided students could also see his nose, of course. A fallacy is something that is deceptive or misleading, A.K.A. lying. No one likes their pants on fire, so it's best to avoid certain poor uses of argument.

The common thread in these rhetorical no-nos is a lack of logic and evidence. After all, that's what argument (real argument) is about—using logic and reasoning, and supporting it with qualified evidence—to convince the reader of what we're saying. It's decidedly not about tricking the reader into believing us based on facts we made up, appeals to their softer, squishy emotional side, or anything else that isn't logic.

On the exam, questions may ask for an identification of a fallacy, as well as a few possible questions about why the fallacy is bad. The first question we can answer by knowing this list, and the answer to the second question is always some form of "because it isn't logical and lacks evidence." Read on.

Ad Hominem

Any argument that attacks the other's side's representative personally, rather than refuting their argument, is an ad hominem fallacy. (Political ads are huge propagators of this fallacy.)

Example: Katie obviously can't be treasurer of Spanish club. She couldn't even remember the words to the national anthem at last month's basketball game.

Appeal to Ignorance

An argument claiming that if something hasn't been proven false/true, it must be the opposite, is an appeal to ignorance. It's pretending that substantiating information is there even when it totally isn't.

Example: There's no way to prove that he did it, so he must not have thrown paint on that lady's fur coat after all.

Appeal to Sentimentality

Essentially, this fallacy is an appeal to pathos that's gone too far. Appeals to sentimentality encourage the reader to throw logic to the wind in favor of feelings.

Example: You may not have the money to buy a BMW, but you sure would look cool driving one. That's what credit cards are for. (Editor's note: That is emphatically not what credit cards are for. Do not use a credit card to buy a BMW.)

Argument from Authority

This argument is based on asserting the credibility of the speaker rather than evidence—a favorite tactic of parents everywhere.

Example: You have to do your homework because I'm your father and what I say, goes.

Bandwagon Appeals

Arguments based on some form of "everyone else is doing it" are bandwagon appeals. The idea is that all the cool kids are on the wagon, and the speaker also wishes to be on the wagon, even if it's headed down a steep hill in the rain with no brakes.

Example: Everyone is buying a house these days, so it's the best time for me to buy one, too.

Begging the Question

Using circular reasoning is begging the question. This is essentially arguing a thing based on the assumption that it's already been proven.

Example: Hatred of homework is universal. After all, nobody likes it.

Confirmation Bias

An argument that uses only the evidence that supports it and ignores the evidence that would refute it is a confirmation bias.

Example: The medication was proven safe and effective when rats in Group A exhibited decreased symptoms of diabetes. (The author neglects to mention that they also grew a second tail.)

Dogmatism

Dogmatism fallacies are arguments that allow for no discussion but also provide no evidence.

Example: The fact of the matter is that cats are gross, and dogs are awesome, and that settles it.

Equivocation

Arguments that cloud part of the truth by using different meanings of the same words, typically in the form of a syllogism, are equivocations.

Example: Karl Marx said that "religion is the opiate of the masses," and opiates are illegal, therefore religion should be illegal.

False Dichotomy

This argument is one in which the 'middle ground' is excluded for extremes on either end.

Example: You're either a part of the solution or a part of the problem. (Actually, we would very much like to be excluded from this narrative altogether. It sounds messy.)

Faulty Causality

Also known as the post hoc, ergo propter hoc fallacy for all the Latin lovers out there, this argument implies a cause-and-effect relationship but lacks evidence.

Example: Last week I started saying "fetch" all the time, and now everyone around the U.S. is doing it, so I started the trend. That's so fetch.

Faulty Analogy

This argument uses an analogy or other comparison that does not logically or accurately demonstrate the relationship. The typical response to a faulty analogy is "Hey, those two things aren't really the same thing, Bucko!" The term "Bucko" may or may not be used in that exchange.

Example: We all agree that we shouldn't play with matches, so all campfires should be banned immediately.

Hasty Generalization

A hasty generalization occurs when an argument uses either very little or highly specific information to jump to a big conclusion, like "pole vault across the Grand Canyon" big.

Example: Nobody in my class had peanut allergies last year, and this year three kids have them. Peanut allergies in the U.S. are tripling every year.

Non sequitur

Literally meaning "it doesn't follow" in Latin, the term fittingly describes an argument that's basically the rhetorical version of a double-take.

Example: Everyone we know from school is going to that concert, so the band will be great.

Red Herring

Like shouting "Squirrel!" at an excitable dog, a red herringis an argument that distracts attention from the real argument by inserting something totally unrelated.

Example: While I may have been 15 minutes late, I also bake award-winning brownies, so I think we can forget about that late fee, right?

Scare Tactics

True to the name, scare tactics rely on scaring the audience into agreeing. These arguments sometimes contain a slippery slope argument as well. More on that in a minute.

Example: We all know Javier is a vegan, so if you elect him class president, you may as well kiss those burgers and pizza in the cafeteria goodbye.

Slippery Slope

It may sound like part of a Three Stooges routine, but a slippery slope argument actually predicts catastrophic results from a seemingly insignificant cause.

Example: If you feed one stray cat, soon the entire neighborhood will be full of them and there won't be enough kibble for anyone!

Straw Man (Person?) Argument

Like Dorothy's Scarecrow, a straw man argument rewords the opposing argument, oversimplifying it in order to refute it more easily. If the response "Hey, that's not what I said! You're twisting my words!" sounds applicable, you're looking at a straw man.

Example: No, you can't borrow my sweater. Am I just supposed to buy all your clothes for you now?

Study Break

Try to go the next five minutes without reaching for a snack. We dare you.

Sample Lesson - Reading

Reading 1.1.04e: Sample Passage

Read the passage below and answer the question that follows.

This passage is excerpted from an essay written in  19th-century America.

             I heartily accept the motto, "That government is best
        which governs least"; and I should like to see it acted
        up to more rapidly and systematically. Carried out, it
        finally amounts to this, which also I believe—"That
5      government is best which governs not at all"; and
        when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of
        government which they will have. Government is at
        best but an expedient; but most governments are usually,
        and all governments are sometimes, inexpedient. The
10    objections which have been brought against a standing
        army, and they are many and weighty, and deserve to
        prevail, may also at last be brought against a standing
        government. The standing army is only an arm of the
        standing government. The government itself, which is
15    only the mode which the people have chosen to execute
        their will, is equally liable to be abused and perverted
        before the people can act through it. Witness the present
        Mexican war, the work of comparatively a few individuals
        using the standing government as their tool; for in the
20    outset, the people would not have consented to this measure.
             This American government—what is it but a tradition,
        though a recent one, endeavoring to transmit itself
        unimpaired to posterity, but each instant losing some of its
        integrity? It has not the vitality and force of a single living
25    man; for a single man can bend it to his will. It is a sort of
        wooden gun to the people themselves. But it is not the less
        necessary for this; for the people must have some complicated
        machinery or other, and hear its din, to satisfy that idea of
        government which they have. Governments show thus how
30    men can be imposed upon, even impose on
        themselves, for their own advantage. It is excellent, we must
        all allow. Yet this government never of itself furthered any
        enterprise, but by the alacrity with which it got out of its way.
        It does not keep the country free. It does not settle the West.
35    It does not educate. The character inherent in the American
        people has done all that has been accomplished; and it would
        have done somewhat more, if the government had not
        sometimes got in its way. For government is an expedient,
        by which men would fain succeed in letting one another alone;
40    and, as has been said, when it is most expedient, the governed
        are most let alone by it. Trade and commerce, if they were not
        made of india-rubber, would never manage to bounce over
        obstacles which legislators are continually putting in their way;
        and if one were to judge these men wholly by the effects of their
45    actions and not partly by their intentions, they would deserve
        to be classed and punished with those mischievous persons
        who put obstructions on the railroads.
             But, to speak practically and as a citizen, unlike those who
        call themselves no-government men, I ask for, not at once no
50    government, but at once a better government. Let every man
        make known what kind of government would command his
        respect, and that will be one step toward obtaining it.
        (Source)

1. The dominant organizing principle in this passage is

A. cause and effect
B. narration
C. definition
D. compare and contrast
E. process analysis

The correct answer is (C).

This question is referring to the rhetorical mode. As is generally the case, there are multiple modes employed throughout the piece, but one is a recurring theme. Stepping back from the piece and looking at it as a whole is the key to seeing it. First, identify the thesis: Government is bad, but necessary. Thoreau is explaining and defining why exactly government is a bad thing, using examples and analogies to back up his claim that "government is best which governs not at all" (line 5).

While Thoreau does go into some of the effects of government, he doesn't address the causes of government being so horrible (A). As far as we know here, it's just bad, but not in a cool way like Michael Jackson. There isn't a story being told and no chronology of events—no "this happened, and then this, and finally this" (B). Thoreau isn't comparing or contrasting bad government to anything (D), like to good governments or ice cream sundaes. Process analysis implies a specific chronology of some kind, which isn't happening (E). We aren't baking a government cake or assembling a government from a set of Swedish instructions.

AP English Language: Rhetorical Function, Strategy, and Purpose: Organizational Structures and Strategies

2. In the context of the first paragraph, the primary rhetorical function of the sentences from lines 7–20 ("Government is at best…to this measure") is to

A. set up an argument for good government
B. explain the author's claim about government
C. refute the claim in paragraph 3
D. prove the futility of the Mexican war
E. acknowledge a fallacy in a previous argument

The correct answer is (B).

This is a typical rhetorical function question, so first refer to the cited lines (7–20). On these types of questions, it may also be helpful to read through the answer choices. Then, compare the cited lines to the rest of the paragraph, because the question starts with "In the context of the first paragraph." If nothing jumps out, try to summarize the cited lines by asking, "What's happening? What is it that he's trying to say?" We might come up with something like, "He's saying why someone wouldn't want government." If at this point we're not sure what the function is, mentally remove this portion from the passage and see what that leaves missing. In this instance, we have the introduction to an old saying, and then Thoreau's new version of it, but no evidence. The entire second portion of the paragraph serves as evidence for the claim that Thoreau makes in line 5: "That government is best which governs not at all."

Looking at the alternative options, Thoreau isn't arguing for good government—he's arguing for no government (A). Evidence normally comes after a claim, instead of before (C). The Mexican war is used as an example, but it's an example that's part of the larger aim of explaining, not the focus of the cited lines (D). The speaker does acknowledge other common wisdom ("the objections…against a standing army"), but he doesn't refute them, and they don't constitute a fallacy (E).

AP English Language: Rhetorical Function, Strategy, and Purpose: Rhetorical Function

3. All of the following rhetorical strategies are used in paragraph 2 EXCEPT

A. rhetorical question
B. irony
C. allusion
D. anaphora
E. metaphor

The correct answer is (C).

This is an "EXCEPT" question that occasionally shows up on the exam. Now we're looking for the rhetorical device that does not appear in paragraph 2. As it happens, an allusion, a reference to something famous or historical, doesn't make an appearance.

The very first line of the second paragraph is a rhetorical question (A). Verbal irony, also known as sarcasm, is found in line 31: "It is excellent, we must all allow," where "it" refers to the government imposing upon people (B). This isn't a good thing. Ask anyone who's lived under a dictatorship. It's not fun. There's also an anaphora in lines 34–35: "It does not…It does not…It does not…" (D). The metaphor is in line 26: "It is a sort of wooden gun to the people" (E).

AP English Language: Rhetorical Function, Strategy, and Purpose: Rhetorical Strategies and Devices

Study Break

There are so, so many logical fallacies, but we're partial to the ones with the cool Latin names.